Criminal Futures

This book explores how predictive policing transforms police work. Police departments around the world have started to use data-driven applications to produce crime forecasts and intervene into the future through targeted prevention measures. Based on three years of field research in Germany and Switzerland, this book provides a theoretically sophisticated and empirically detailed account of how the police produce and act upon criminal futures as part of their everyday work practices. The authors argue that predictive policing must not be analyzed as an isolated technological artifact, but as part of a larger sociotechnical system that is embedded in organizational structures and occupational cultures. The book highlights how, for crime prediction software to come to matter and play a role in more efficient and targeted police work, several translation processes are needed to align human and nonhuman actors across different divisions of police work. Police work is a key function for the production and maintenance of public order, but it can also discriminate, exclude, and violate civil liberties and human rights. When criminal futures come into being in the form of algorithmically produced risk estimates, this can have wide-ranging consequences. Building on empirical findings, the book presents a number of practical recommendations for the prudent use of algorithmic analysis tools in police work that will speak to the protection of civil liberties and human rights as much as they will speak to the professional needs of police organizations. An accessible and compelling read, this book will appeal to students and scholars of criminology, sociology, and cultural studies as well as to police practitioners and civil liberties advocates, in addition to all those who are interested in how to implement reasonable forms of data-driven policing

On security, once more. Assorted inquiries in aviation

My dissertation seeks to establish a nuanced understanding of security through an empirical account based on research in the field of aviation security. The core of the dissertation consists of 6 articles (published, accepted for publication, or under review) that deal with distinct technologies, knowledges, and practices within aviation security. In detail, the articles are as follows: Leese M (2013) Blurring the Dimensions of Privacy? Law Enforcement and Trusted Traveler Programs. Computer Law & Security Review 29(5): 480-490; Leese M (2014) The New Profiling: Algorithms, Black Boxes, and the Failure of Anti-discriminatory Safeguards in the European Union. Security Dialogue 45(5): 494-511; Leese M (2015) Privacy and Security - On the Evolution of a European Conflict. In Gutwirth S, Leenes R & De Hert P (eds.) Re-forming European Data Protection Law. Dordrecht/Heidelberg/New York/London: Springer, 271-292; Leese M (2015) Body Scanners in Germany: A Case of Failed Securitization. European Journal of Internal Security (forthcoming); Leese M and Koenigseder A (2015) Humor at the Airport? Visualization, Exposure, and Laughter in the “War on Terror”. International Political Sociology (forthcoming); Leese M (under review) Governing airport security: an empirical account between economic rationality and the public good. Criminology & Criminal Justice. These empirical pieces are embedded in a theoretical framework that offers multiple perspectives on security, including security as value, security as transformation, security as securitization, security as future, security as government, security as surveillance, security as technology, security as economy, security as assemblage, and security as normativity. The applied perspectives are arguably linked, leading in their subsequent order to a ‘complication’ of security that in the end culminates in the call for an understanding of security as a normatively charged field that – especially when considering its potentially detrimental impacts on human rights and civil liberties – should be pried away from the notion of threat and exceptionalism and instead be re-politicized

Science, technology, security: towards critical collaboration

Science and technology play a central role in the contemporary governance of security, both as tools for the production of security and as objects of security concern. Scholars are increasingly seeking to not only critically reflect on the interplays between science, technology and security, but also engage with the practices of security communities that shape and are shaped by science and technology. To further help this growth of interest in security topics within science and technology studies (STS), we explore possible modes of socio-technical collaboration with security communities of practice. Bringing together literatures from STS and critical security studies, we identify several key challenges to critical social engagement of STS scholars in security-related issues. We then demonstrate how these challenges played out over the course of three case studies from our own experience in engaging security communities of practice. We use these vignettes to show that there is a rich vein of developments in both theory and practice that STS scholars can pursue by attending to the interplay of science, technology and security

How Smart Is “Smart Security”? Exploring Data Subjectivity and Resistance

‘Smart security’ is currently being used as an umbrella term that embraces several initiatives proposed by the aviation industry in order to enhance security procedures at airports. The idea of smarter security opposes the traditional screening framework of passenger security at airports which enacts a one-size-fits-all approach in order to detect dangerous items that might threaten flight safety and security. Recently however, the security industry claims that smart solutions could provide better security, less intrusive screening, and better cost efficiency by employing tailored security procedures based on individual data-driven risk assessment of passengers and corresponding different levels of security screening. As smart security solutions are currently still under development, this report analyses potential human rights problems connected to a broader implementation of smart security routines in a timely fashion. Constituent elements of smart security, such as computer-based sorting of individuals into risk-groups and algorithms preparing or taking decisions on passengers’ mobility, can have severe consequences. Critical questions to be asked include: Who is accountable for smart security decisions? Is it possible to appeal against such decisions? How dangerous is the data-driven approach with regard to structural discrimination and equality of all passengers? We review and summarise the state of the art in the field of data-driven risk analysis and analyse eight interviews that we have conducted with representatives of European aviation associations, state authorities and the civil society. Bearing in mind the human rights implications of smart security, the report identifies six central policy gaps, issues recommendations to address them and provides a basis for a much needed public debate on smart security

Why we need sustainable networks bridging countries, disciplines, cultures and generations for Aquatic Biomonitoring 2.0: A Perspective Derived From the DNAqua-Net COST Action

Aquatic biomonitoring has become an essential task in Europe and many other regions as a consequence of strong anthropogenic pressures affecting the health of lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater. A typical assessment of the environmental quality status, such as it is required by European but also North American and other legislation, relies on matching the composition of assemblages of organisms identified using morphological criteria present in aquatic ecosystems to those expected in the absence of anthropogenic pressures. Through decade-long and difficult intercalibration exercises among networks of regulators and scientists in European countries, a pragmatic biomonitoring approach was developed and adopted, which now produces invaluable information. Nonetheless, this approach is based on several hundred different protocols, making it susceptible to issues with comparability, scale and resolution. Furthermore, data acquisition is often slow due to a lack of taxonomic experts for many taxa and regions and time-consuming morphological identification of organisms. High-throughput genetic screening methods such as (e)DNA metabarcoding have been proposed as a possible solution to these shortcomings. Such "next-generation biomonitoring", also termed "biomonitoring 2.0", has many advantages over the traditional approach in terms of speed, comparability and costs. It also creates the potential to include new bioindicators and thereby further improves the assessment of aquatic ecosystem health. However, several major conceptual and technological challenges still hinder its implementation into legal and regulatory frameworks. Academic scientists sometimes tend to overlook legal or socioeconomic constraints, which regulators have to consider on a regular basis. Moreover, quantification of species abundance or biomass remains a significant bottleneck to releasing the full potential of these approaches. Here, we highlight the main challenges for next-generation aquatic biomonitoring and outline principles and good practicCOST - European Cooperation in Science and Technology(CA15219). COST Action DNAqua-Net (CA15219), supported by the COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) programm

DNA barcode reference libraries for the monitoring of aquatic biota in Europe: Gap-analysis and recommendations for future work

Effective identification of species using short DNA fragments (DNA barcoding and DNA metabarcoding) requires reliable sequence reference libraries of known taxa. Both taxonomically comprehensive coverage and content quality are important for sufficient accuracy. For aquatic ecosystems in Europe, reliable barcode reference libraries are particularly important if molecular identification tools are to be implemented in biomonitoring and reports in the context of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). We analysed gaps in the two most important reference databases, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) and NCBI GenBank, with a focus on the taxa most frequently used in WFD and MSFD. Our analyses show that coverage varies strongly among taxonomic groups, and among geographic regions. In general, groups that were actively targeted in barcode projects (e.g. fish, true bugs, caddisflies and vascular plants) are well represented in the barcode libraries, while others have fewer records (e.g. marine molluscs, ascidians, and freshwater diatoms). We also found that species monitored in several countries often are represented by barcodes in reference libraries, while species monitored in a single country frequently lack sequence records. A large proportion of species (up to 50%) in several taxonomic groups are only represented by private data in BOLD. Our results have implications for the future strategy to fill existing gaps in barcode libraries, especially if DNA metabarcoding is to be used in the monitoring of European aquatic biota under the WFD and MSFD. For example, missing species relevant to monitoring in multiple countries should be prioritized for future collaborative programs. We also discuss why a strategy for quality control and quality assurance of barcode reference libraries is needed and recommend future steps to ensure full utilisation of metabarcoding in aquatic biomonitoring.This paper is a deliverable of the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action DNAqua-Net (CA15219) Working Group 1, led by Torbjørn Ekrem and Fedor Čiampor. Thanks to the University of Minho and University of Pécs for hosting workshops and working group meetings. We also thank staff at National Environment Agencies and others that provided national checklists of taxa used in biomonitoring, and otherwise assisted with checklist proof-reading: Jarmila Makovinská and Emília Mišíková Elexová (Slovakia); Steinar Sandøy and Dag Rosland (Norway); Mišel Jelič (Croatia); Marlen Vasquez (Cyprus); Adam Petrusek (Czech Republic); Kristel Panksep (Estonia); Panagiotis Kaspiditis (Greece); Matteo Montagna (Italy); Marija Katarzyte (Lithuania); Ana Rotter (Slovenia); Rosa Trabajo (Spain); Florian Altermatt (Switzerland); Kristian Meissner (Finland), Rigers Bakiu (Albania), Valentina Stamenkovic and Jelena Hinic (Macedonia); Patricia Mergen (Belgium); Gael Denys & the French Biodiversity Agency (France); Mary Kelly-Quinn (Ireland); Piotr Panek and Andrzej Zawal (Poland); Cesare Mario Puzzi (Italy); Carole Fitzpatrick (United Kingdom); Simon Vitecek (Austria); Ana Filipa Filipe (Portugal); Peter Anton Stæhr & Anne Winding (Denmark); Michael Monaghan (Germany); Alain Dohet, Lionel L'Hoste, Nora Welschbillig & Luc Ector (Luxembourg), Lujza Keresztes, (Romania). The authors also want to thank Dirk Steinke for providing the original European ERMS list for marine taxa and Florian Malard for comments on the manuscript. The preparation of the AMBI checklist was carried out in the scope of a Short-term Scientific Mission (ECOST-STSM-CA15219-150217- 082111) granted to SD visiting AZTI, Spain. ZC was supported by grants EFOP-3.6.1.-16-2016-00004 and 20765-3/2018/FEKUTSTRAT. TE was supported by the NorBOL-grant (226134/F50) from the Research Coun cil of Norway. BR, FL and MFG contributed through support from the GBOL project, which is generously funded by the German Federal Min istry of Education and Research (FKZ 01LI1101 and 01LI1501). MG contributed through support of the Polish National Science Centre, grants N N303 5794 39 and 2014/15/B/NZ8/00266. SF was funded by the project PORBIOTA - Portuguese E-Infrastructure for Information and Research on Biodiversity (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022127), supported by Operational Thematic Program for Competitiveness and Internationalization (POCI), under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER)

Multi-trait analysis characterizes the genetics of thyroid function and identifies causal associations with clinical implications

To date only a fraction of the genetic footprint of thyroid function has been clarified. We report a genome-wide association study meta-analysis of thyroid function in up to 271,040 individuals of European ancestry, including reference range thyrotropin (TSH), free thyroxine (FT4), free and total triiodothyronine (T3), proxies for metabolism (T3/FT4 ratio) as well as dichotomized high and low TSH levels. We revealed 259 independent significant associations for TSH (61% novel), 85 for FT4 (67% novel), and 62 novel signals for the T3 related traits. The loci explained 14.1%, 6.0%, 9.5% and 1.1% of the total variation in TSH, FT4, total T3 and free T3 concentrations, respectively. Genetic correlations indicate that TSH associated loci reflect the thyroid function determined by free T3, whereas the FT4 associations represent the thyroid hormone metabolism. Polygenic risk score and Mendelian randomization analyses showed the effects of genetically determined variation in thyroid function on various clinical outcomes, including cardiovascular risk factors and diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. In conclusion, our results improve the understanding of thyroid hormone physiology and highlight the pleiotropic effects of thyroid function on various diseases

We Do That Once Per Day: Cyclical Futures and Institutional Ponderousness in Predictive Policing

This chapter investigates the temporal modalities of predictive policing. It argues that there is a considerable rift between the technoscientific imaginaries of automation, real-time situational awareness, and maximum responsiveness on the one hand, and the static ways in which police departments practice algorithmic crime analysis on the other. Due to the asynchronicity between crime and police work, the police consider it sufficient to analyze crime data only once per day and work with the resulting risk estimates for up to seven days. Such temporal practices decisively undercut narratives of operational flexibility vis-à-vis a supposedly dynamic threat environment. Overall, so this chapter claims, the temporalities of predictive policing primarily align with the characteristics of the addressed type of crime and with entrenched operational requirements of police work. Crime prediction must in this sense be understood as an iterative, rhythmic activity that keeps on producing short-term futures.In diesem Kapitel werden die zeitlichen Modalitäten des Predictive Policing untersucht. Es wird argumentiert, dass es eine beträchtliche Kluft zwischen den wissenschaftlichen Vorstellungen der Automatisierung, dem Situationsbewusstsein in Echtzeit und der maximalen Reaktionsfähigkeit auf der einen Seite und der statischen Art und Weise , mit der die Polizeibehörden algorithmische Kriminalitätsanalyse durchführen, auf der anderen Seite gibt. Aufgrund der Asynchronität zwischen Kriminalität und Polizeiarbeit hält es die Polizei für ausreichend, die Kriminalitätsdaten nur einmal pro Tag zu analysieren und mit den daraus resultierenden Risikoeinschätzungen bis zu sieben Tage zu arbeiten. Solche Praktiken untergraben Narrative über operative Flexibilität gegenüber einem vermeintlich dynamischen Bedrohungsumfeld massgeblich. Insgesamt, so die Behauptung in diesem Kapitel, stimmen die zeitlichen Abläufe der vorausschauenden Polizeiarbeit in erster Linie mit den Merkmalen der jeweiligen Kriminalitätsart und mit den fest verankerten operativen Anforderungen der Polizeiarbeit überein. Die Verbrechensvorhersage muss in diesem Sinne als eine iterative, rhythmische Aktivität verstanden werden, die immer wieder kurzfristige Zukunftszenarien hervorbringt

Predictive Policing: Umsicht ist das Gebot der Stunde

Datengestützte Analyseverfahren können die Wirksamkeit und Effizienz von Polizeiarbeit erhöhen. Polizeidepartmente sollten allerdings beim Einsatz solcher Verfahren Umsicht walten lassen, um Risiken in Bezug auf Grund- und Freiheitsrechte zu vermeiden.ISSN:2296-647

Europe’s new digital borders

The European Union’s (EU) external border framework is not only increasingly reliant on digital databases, but these databases are now set to become interoperable. By 2020, the European Commission (EC) aims to have a fully interconnected new architecture for identity management at the border in place. Based on biometric enrolment of all third-country citizens, Europe’s new digital borders raise a number of concerns, including suspicion, large-scale surveillance, and internal policing that spread well beyond the border site. Border management today is embedded into a complex network of data collection and data analysis that provides authorities with knowledge about who (or what) attempts to cross the border. While still serving as physical chokepoints for the examination and extraction of dangerous, suspicious, or illegitimate elements from global flows of mobility, border operations therefore increasingly rely on a number of databases..